Click here for accessories. Ordering Information:. Description: Reaction block for 50ml round bottom flasks 1 flask capacity. Add to Cart View Details. Description: Reaction block for ml round bottom flask 1 flask capacity. Description: Carrying plate for quarter pie reaction blocks.
Description: Red quarter reaction block, 11 holes 4 ml reaction vessel Description: Purple quarter reaction block, 4 holes 20 ml reaction vessel 28mm dia x 24mm depth. There are some basic matters that apply to the health, safety, and welfare of those who use public pools or spas.
Facility design and construction Facility operation and management Hazards include physical situations which could result in fatal or non-fatal drowning, entrapment, or spinal injuries. Hazards could also be micro-biological, physical, or chemical.
Any of these factors could become a risk to health. There are several public regulatory agencies at each level of government in the U. Besides regulations, there are also standards. These have been developed by various national and international organizations. These standards serve as guidelines to the pool operator. Many states, provinces, counties, and cities have regulations for both public and private pools.
These statutes often allow for the creation of administrative codes. A government department is then given the duty to apply the administrative codes. Quite often local laws cover items such as barriers, accessibility, and hours of operation. There may also be a need to consider whether the facility complies with the Americans with Disabilities Act.
Environmental Protection Agency is to protect human health and to safeguard the natural environment. Listed among the purposes of the EPA is all Americans are protected from significant risks to human health and the environment where they live, learn, and work. The EPA has many regulations that can affect and guide pool operators.
Sample Storage and Disposal Label Store in original container in areas inaccessible to children. Do not reuse empty container. Wrap container and put in trash. Causes irreversible eye damage and skin burns. May be fatal if swallowed. Do not get in eyes, on skin or on clothing.
Wear safety glasses, rubber gloves and protective clothing. Wash thoroughly with soap and water after handling and before eating, drinking, or using tobacco. Remove contaminated clothing and wash clothing before reuse. Labels The EPA controls pesticide product registration and labeling.
A pesticide is a chemical used to prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate pests. In an aquatic facility, pests can be pool algae, fungi, or microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses. Most pesticides contain chemicals that can be harmful to people. Labels use signal words to show how toxic or unsafe a product can be. They are Caution, Warning, and Danger.
Danger Danger is the strongest signal word. If a label has the word Danger on it, the user must be extremely careful handling the product. If it is used the wrong way, medical problems or injury such as blindness or death could occur. Danger is also used on products that could explode if they become heated. Warning Warning is less strong than Danger, but it still means that the user could become very ill or badly injured by exposure.
Warning is also used to identify products that can easily catch on fire. Caution Caution shows that the product could be harmful, but less harmful than products with a Danger or Warning signal word.
Caution is used for products that could cause skin irritation, illness if the fumes are breathed, or trauma if the product contacts the eyes. The signal word on this label is Danger. Courtesy of BioLab, Inc. Sample Product Label This algicide is compatible with most chemicals normally used in swimming pool maintenance; however, in its concentrated form, this chemical should not come in contact with high concentrations of chlorine.
These chemicals should be handled separately. For an initial application or when pool water is changed, use one quart per 25, gallons of water. For maintenance, use one ounce per week per 5, gallons of water. After each rain of consequence, add one ounce per 5, gallons of water in addition to the above amounts.
The appropriate amount of this algicide should be added by pouring directly into the pool. More rapid distribution will be achieved by pouring a little of the specified amount into several areas of the pool. Circulation or swimming activity will assure rapid dispersion. Labels give directions as to proper use and dosage amounts. Labels also provide information about proper chemical dosage, storage, disposal, and proper methods of empty container disposal.
Each state may establish minimum requirements for training. California has a system designed to track pesticide illnesses. Over the years, most of the accidents with gas chlorine occurred at swimming pools and food processing plants. Problems at pools involved pool operator error in switching cylinders, resulting in the release of chlorine gas.
A large number of these problems involved untrained workers or resulted from lack of proper safety measures. Aquatic facility staff and other people in the area can be exposed to gas chlorine released when metering equipment fails.
Human error in working with the tank and equipment, or contamination of a chlorine-containing disinfectant, may cause chlorine gas to be released. Accidents involving chlorine gas create hazardous exposure to the skin, eyes, and respiratory tract. The EPA has determined that the chlorine gas used for nonresidential swimming pools should be reclassified from General Use to Restricted Use.
Based chiefly on California incident reports, the EPA determined that many applicators of chlorine gas lacked proper training. This greatly added to the potential for accidents. The EPA has left the certification for gas chlorine applicators up to the states. For residential application of chlorine gas, the EPA does not enforce restriction of use to specially authorized applicators.
However, in addition. The subsequent layers of security and regulation have significantly reduced use of chlorine gas in residential settings. SARA Title III exists to encourage emergency planning efforts at the state and local level, regarding the release or spill of hazardous or toxic chemicals.
Gas chlorine use requires proper training concerning handling and storage. Cylinders must be individually chained to the wall and the regulator flow must be slow enough to prevent ice formation on the cylinder. Incompatible chemicals could release chlorine gas. The surrounding community should be protected by having an emergency response plan in place. OSHA has estimated that more than 32 million workers are exposed to , hazardous chemical products in more than 3 million American workplaces.
This exposure may be a grave problem for workers and their employers. This should help reduce the rate of chemical source illness and injuries. Chemicals pose a wide range of health hazards irritation, sensitization, and carcinogenicity and physical hazards flammability, corrosion, and reactivity.
Chemical manufacturers and importers are required to evaluate the hazards of the chemicals they produce or import and provide details about them. This information is provided on labels attached to shipping containers as well as the SDS. The HCS provides workers the right to know the names of the chemicals they are exposed to in the workplace and the associated hazards. The standard also gives employers the information they need to design and.
SDS must be available to all employees at the job location where the chemical is used. The SDS must be available to all workers at the job site where the chemical is used.
A copy of the SDS should also be filed in a secure place for a period of 30 years after the last use of the chemical. The CPSC is committed to protecting consumers and families from products that pose a fire, electrical,. The pool operator should be aware of product recalls involving the safety of facility users or staff.
Recent recalls include items such as dive sticks, flotation training devices, chemicals, swim masks, and suction covers. The U. The CPSC recognizes the need for guidelines to help industry, health officials, inspectors, and maintenance personnel prevent deaths and injuries in spas and pools.
The pool operator should obtain a copy of these guidelines to assist in any renovation project. Baker: , , , , , , Mallinckr odt: , , , , , Symptoms from excessive inhalation of dust ma y include coughing and dif ficult breathing. Excessive contact is known to cause damage to the nasal septum. Ingestion: Sodium carbonate is only slightly toxic, but large doses may be corrosive to the gastro-intestinal tract where symp toms may include sever e abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, collapse and death.
Sk i n C o n t a c t : Excessive contact may cause irritation with blistering and redness. Solutions may cause sever e irritation or bur ns. Eye Contact: Contact may be corr osive to eyes and cause conjuctival edema and corneal destruction. Risk of serious injur y incr eases if eyes are kept tightly closed.
Other symptoms m ay appear from absorption of sodium carbonate into the bloodstr eam via the eyes. Eye Contact: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, lifting lower and upper eyelids occasionally.
Get medical attention immediately. Fir e Fighting Measures Fire : Not consider ed to be a fir e hazard. Explosion: Not considered an explosion hazard, but sodium carbonate may explode when applied to red-hot aluminum. F i r e E x t i n g u i s h i n g Me d i a : Use any means suitable for extinguishing surr ounding fire. Give large quantities of water. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Skin Contact: Immediately flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least 15 minutes.
Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical attention. Wash clothing befor e reuse. Thor oughly clean shoes befor e reuse. For emer gencies or instances where the exposur e levels are not known, use a full-face positive-pr essur e, air-supplied respira tor.
S k i n P rotection: Wear protective gloves and clean body-covering clothing. Spills: Sweep up and containerize for reclamation or disposal. Vacuuming or wet sweeping may be used to avoid dust dis persal. The Department of Transportation DOT Hazardous materials are those that pose a threat to public safety or the environment during transport because of their physical, chemical, or nuclear properties.
The pool operator should be aware of national and local transportation rules. Department of Transportation DOT classifies many chemicals on site. This is most easily learned by reading the SDS for each chemical. The pool operator must know and follow the transport regulations if he or she is involved in the transport of chemicals.
The pool staff should be wellinformed and have the needed means to control a chemical spill. A few of the chemicals classified as hazardous by the DOT are:. Keep in a tightly closed container , stor ed in a cool, dr y, ven tilated area.
Pr otect against physical damage. Isolate from incompatible substances. Containers of this material may be hazardous when empty since they retain product residues dust, solids ; obser ve all warnings and precautions listed for the product.
Local exhaust ventilation is generally preferr ed because it can contr ol th e emissions of the contaminant at its sour ce, preventing disper sion of it into the general work area. Maintain eye wash fountain and quick-drench facilities in work area. Special Infor mation: Use protective clothing and breathing equipment appropriate for the surrounding fire. Ventilate area of leak or spill. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment as specified in Section 8.
First Aid Measur es Inhalation: Remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respira tion. If breathing is dif ficult, give oxygen. Note to Physician: Consider endoscopy in all suspected cases of sodium carbonate poisoning. Per form blood analysis to determine if dehydration, acidosis, or other electrolyte imbalances occur red. Stability and Reactivity Stability: Stable under ordinar y conditions of use and storage.
Readily absorbs moistur e from the air. Solutions are str ong bases. SDS provide important information to the employee concerning chemical handling and storage, exposure, personal protection, chemical disposal, fire fighting, and first aid.
A small child can open this gate. The CPSC provides guidelines covering gates and latches for proper installation. The entrance gate to the fence surrounding the pool is 23 inches Provide an entrance gate with a clear opening at least 32 inches Expert help should be obtained from an outside source early in the planning phase to assure compliance.
These rules are under RWIs spread by swallowing, breathing, or having constant review, and court rulings affect enforcement contact with contaminated water from swimming on a regular basis. Here is a finding from a recent pools, spas, lakes, rivers, or oceans. These RWIs can settlement at a public pool: cause a wide range of symptoms, including skin, ear, 1. There is no accessible route connecting the respiratory, eye, and wound infections.
The most swimming pool with the bathhouse. Provide commonly reported symptom for a RWI is diarrhea. Internationally, code officials recognized the need for a modern, up-to-date code governing the design, construction, alteration, repair, and maintenance of swimming pools, spas, hot tubs and aquatic facilities.
They are: industry. These standards have been procedures. The MAHC serves as a model and guide health officials, architects, building code officials, for local and state agencies needing guidance to academia, regulatory agencies, and safety experts.
See Appendix C-3 for more information. Under the ICC, the International Building Code IBC was created for use in the design, build, and compliance process to construct safe, sustainable, affordable and resilient structures. These codes are used throughout the U. The main goal of these guidelines is to ensure that aquatic facilities are operated as safely as possible.
In this fashion, the largest possible group of users gets the greatest possible benefit. The WHO guidelines focus on three main groups of hazards:. The pool operator must understand the makeup of the pool users that use his or her facility.
The facility must satisfy the needs of the public that the aquatic facility serves. NSF also offers a voluntary conformity assessment program—testing, certification, and production facility audits—to show compliance with the standard. The pool operator should be aware of NSF rules that improve the industry. Pool circulation equipment should bear the proper regulatory certification markings. ASTM standards serve as the basis for manufacturing, procurement, and regulatory activities. ASTM International provides standards that are accepted and used in research and development, product testing, and quality systems.
UL is an independent, not-for-profit product-safety testing and certification organization. UL has tested products for public safety for more than a century.
If the pool operator uses equipment that is not certified by NSF International, then a UL or equivalent certification should be in place, for example: certificates for installed alarm systems are available only from UL-listed alarm service companies. UL qualifies alarm service companies for listing and for certificate service by reviewing examples of their work. After the alarm company becomes listed, they can then issue certificates for each system they install.
ASTM International has several publications of importance available at www. The mission of the international non-profit NFPA is to reduce fire and other hazards by providing and advocating consensus codes and standards, research, training, and education. The system also provides for the recognition of unusual water reactivity and oxidizers. Article deals specifically with swimming pools. The red number represents the flammability rating, the blue represents the health hazard rating, and the yellow represents the instability hazard rating.
The lettering in the white area represents any special hazards; in this example the material is corrosive. American Red Cross For a century, the American Red Cross has been preparing people to save lives through health and safety education and training. The American Red Cross strives to respond to the health and safety concerns of Americans at home, in school, and in the workplace. American Red Cross programs also include teaching the public and professionals how to use defibrillators to save victims of sudden cardiac arrest.
The American Red Cross, can provide guidelines on specific safety devices necessary for your pool. The pool operator should be trained at least to the level of any subordinate staff member. American Red Cross certification for lifeguarding and CPR for the Professional Rescuer may be among the programs that the pool operator should pursue. Water Safety USA members collaborate to enhance individual organizational efforts to promote water safety and prevent drowning.
Water Safety USA Water Safety USA was established in February by governmental and nongovernmental organizations with the mission of empowering people with resources, information, and tools to safely enjoy and benefit from U. While not specifically a standards-setting organization, the organization is comprised of longstanding national organizations with a strong record of providing drowning prevention and water safety programs, including public education.
Each year, the members of Water Safety USA select a single water safety topic that all members agree upon to promote collaboratively throughout the year. Resource Contact List An aquatic facility that has specific programs should abide by the guidelines set by the national or international organizations that are the commonly accepted leaders for an activity. The following list is provided to assist the pool operator in finding the most current information.
Websites for each organization are available at phta. Coast Guard U. Consumer Product Safety Commission U. Department of Labor U. Diving U. Guidelines for operating an aquatic facility are available from numerous training and standards organizations.
You determine from the results of your water test that you need to add grams of soda ash to your pool. How many kilograms is this? Water quality management, facility planning, renovation, and equipment replacement require that the pool operator be competent in basic calculations. Failure to perform calculations correctly can result in hazardous conditions and threaten the health, safety, and welfare of the facility users and staff. The original construction drawings contain basic information, such as dimensions and volume in gallons.
Basic Arithmetic The certified operator must possess basic math skills and the ability to use a hand-held calculator. The professional pool manager must be able to evaluate water quality test results and take corrective action.
Liquid and dry quantity conversions and chemical dosages are examples of the type of daily computations required of the pool operator. The daily care of an aquatic facility requires the use of common terms, such as pounds, gallons, feet, square feet, meters, and liters.
Calculations must be converted to common pool industry terminology to insure proper understanding between staff members. Figure Useful Conversions and Constants may be helpful to the operator on a routine basis. Example Amount Conversion You determine from the results of your pool water test that you need to add 36 ounces of soda ash to your pool.
How many pounds is this? Example Distance Conversion Your pool is 25 meters long and 25 yards wide. What are the dimensions in feet? Note: 1 meter is actually 3.
Rounding to 3. Example Distance Conversion Your pool is 50 meters long and 32 meters wide. Meters x 3. Measurements remain in meters. Each grid filters from both sides. What is the filter area? Your D. You determine from the results of your pool water test that you need to add milliliters of muriatic acid to your pool. How many liters is this? You determine from the results of your pool water test that you need to add 32 fluid ounces of muriatic acid to your pool.
How many cups is this? You determine from the results of your pool water test that you need to add fluid ounces of sodium hypochlorite to breakpoint chlorinate your pool. How many gallons is this? Surface Area Example Metric You determine from the results of your pool water test that you need to add 19, milliliters of sodium hypochlorite to breakpoint chlorinate your pool.
Pool Volume Capacity Knowing the volume gallons or liters of water in any aquatic feature is critical for the proper management of operating equipment, chemical dosing, and patron use. Usually the design engineer who prepared the original specifications includes this information on the technical drawings. If the drawing specifications are not available, local health officials may have the necessary technical information on file.
The design calculations and the actual as-built water volume may be different due to construction deviations. Pool floors do not have uniform slopes.
Pool walls usually have a slight variation from vertical. Walls and floors are joined by a radius, or blend. These fluctuations result in a pool volume that is at best only an approximation.
The surface area of any aquatic facility is that area of the pool water exposed to the air. This area is also used to determine pool cover sizing, user load in some codes , and for calculating water temperature losses. In the simplest terms, area corresponds to the length of the pool multiplied by the width.
Figure has several of the most common shapes. Other surface areas of concern include the pool wall surface for resurfacing and deck for pool-related leisure activities. Calculating filter area is important for water quality management. Calculate the volume of a multi-shaped pool by dividing the pool into sections.
To calculate pool volume in gallons, multiply the surface area by the average depth and a conversion factor of 7. This factor requires the length, width, and depth to be measured in feet. The actual value is 7. In a pool of 60, gallons, the error is only This deviation is only 0. The ease of using 7.
Additionally, volume calculations are typically rounded up e. Average depth is not always easy to determine. For a simple constant-slope pool, it is the average. To calculate pool volume in liters, all measurements remain in meters. Multiply the surface area by the average depth in meters.
The resulting value is in meters cubed m3. Multiply the m3 by a conversion factor of , since there are liters in a cubic meter of water. Then, add the volumes of all the sections together for the total volume in gallons. Refer to Figure To determine the approximate number of gallons or liters in a pool or spa, first determine the surface area.
Then multiply the area by the average depth and the constant conversion factor of 7. To find the average depth for a more complex shaped pool, divide the complex shape into several simple shapes, calculate each one separately, and add them back together. For circular pools, R stands for radius.
The volume of a kidney-shaped pool is calculated using the area x average depth x 7. Calculating Gallons in a Multi-depth Pool Your pool is 50 feet long and 25 feet wide. The shallow end varies in depth from 3 feet - 6 inches to 5 feet deep. The main drain is at a depth of 10 feet, and the deep end wall is 8 feet - 6 inches deep. How many gallons are in your pool? Section A - Section A is 30 feet long, with a width of 25 feet.
The depth varies from 3. Section B - Section B is 10 feet long, with a width of 25 feet. The depth varies from 5 feet to 10 feet deep. Section C - Section C is 10 feet long, with a width of 25 feet. The depth varies from 10 feet to 8. Calculating Liters in a Multi-depth Pool Your pool is 25 meters long and 15 meters wide. The shallow end varies in depth from 1 meter to 1.
The main drain is at a depth of 3 meters, and the deep end wall is 2. How many liters are in your pool? Section A - Section A is 15 meters long, with a width of 15 meters.
The depth varies from 1 m to 1. Section B - Section B is 5 meters long, with a width of 15 meters. The depth varies from 1. Section C - Section C is 5 meters long, with a width of 15 meters. The depth varies from 3 m to 2. Calculating Gallons in 1 Inch of Depth Use the previous pool for this example. You return to the pool on a Monday and find that the auto-fill failed to operate. Your pool water level is 3 inches too low. How many gallons must be added? Calculating Liters in 1 Centimeter of Depth Your 25 m x 15 m pool water level is 7.
How many liters must be added? The difference is that there is no slope; the depth is constant. Other Useful Calculations The calculations covered in this chapter apply to several chapters throughout this handbook. There are other calculations that a pool operator is likely to perform or need to understand. Rather than cover them in this general chapter, they are reviewed in the chapter where they apply. The pool must first be separated into its component parts.
Each part must be calculated and then added back together. Section A Section A is the top of the spa down to the seat. The depth is 18 inches 1. Section B Section B is the foot well of the spa from the seat down to the main drain floor. The depth is 2. The depth is 0. Exercise that people receive from swimming and other aquatic activities provides a tremendous public health benefit for society. The ability to swim builds self-confidence and leads to a wide variety of other aquatic-related activities.
However, the water, and sometimes the air above the water, can contribute to unhealthy conditions for the user unless proper water quality management is maintained. Preventing people from getting sick due to contact with or ingestion of water or inhalation of water vapor is the primary reason pools are constantly treated with disinfectant. Disinfectants kill germs that make people sick.
The challenge of this role is real and requires constant attention. About one-fourth of the disease outbreaks are due to germs that are easily killed by chlorine or other disinfectants. In many instances, no disinfectant like chlorine was present to protect the users. This shows that many pools are being inadequately treated and reinforces the need for educated pool operators in the field.
An important aspect of health codes is to prevent disease in people who use pools and spas. Yet many health inspections continue to find that pools and. Microorganisms causing illness in humans are said to be pathogens. These organisms can end up in the water from the environment air, soil, water, animals or from users. Showering before entering the pool and structuring programming to include regular bathroom breaks will help reduce the risk of contamination from human bacteria and other contaminants that negatively impact water quality—including, but not limited to, perspiration, urine, skin, body oils, lotions, deodorants, etc.
RWIs can cause a wide variety of symptoms, including gastrointestinal, skin, ear, respiratory, eye, neurologic, and wound infections. The most commonly reported RWI symptom is diarrhea caused Photo Swim pants are required at many facilities.
Gastroenteritis refers to an inflammation spas are not in compliance with the codes. The of the stomach and intestinal tract. Symptoms CDC reported on 84, pool inspections that were associated with gastroenteritis are diarrhea, nausea, carried out in in 16 state and local agencies vomiting, and abdominal cramping.
There were 66, identified violations The CDC issues reports on disease outbreaks every leading to immediate closures documented during two years. State and local jurisdictions report their these inspections. However, many resulted in immediate closures of the pools due to illnesses from recreational facilities are not identified, serious violations, such as the lack of an appropriate investigated or reported to the CDC.
Therefore, disinfectant level required to kill bacteria to safe levels. It is During inspections, environmental health officials important to notice that since the s the number serve as illness-and-injury-prevention advisors to of reported RWI outbreaks has increased steadily. Immediate closures and If a user or employee working in the water is ill with identified violations offer an opportunity to educate diarrhea, the germs they carry can contaminate the operators about how to properly operate and water if they have an accident in the pool.
On average, maintain aquatic facilities and why these measures people have about 0. Currently, no public pool code exists buttocks, which, when rinsed off, can contaminate at the national level: pool and spa rules are created the water. When people are ill with diarrhea, their stool at the state and local levels. The variation in codes can contain millions of germs.
Therefore, swimming throughout the country creates a potential barrier to when ill with diarrhea can easily contaminate prevention and control of disease associated with water. If someone swallows water that has been recreational water.
This route of exposure is called the fecal-oral route of transmission. Standing water is not necessary for RWIs to spread, so even spray decks interactive spray Recreational Water Illness attractions can become contaminated the water Illnesses spread by water used for recreating is just in a collection tank underground and spread swimming, soaking, playing are called Recreational illness.
RWIs are spread by swallowing, disinfectant levels and pH must be maintained at all breathing, or having contact with contaminated water times. Feces from warm-blooded animals Water can be contaminated by microscopic can be tracked into the pool area from contaminated organisms such as bacteria, viruses, or protozoa.
The printer initially heats and melts the solid ink to print the design onto paper. Finally, in step 3 of FIG. Design includes ink region , onto which solid ink is to be printed, and paper region , where no solid ink is to be printed. Illustrated as is a magnification of central region of design The width of ink region between arrows is indicated as area Design includes ink region , onto which solid ink is to be printed, surrounded by paper region , where no solid ink is to be printed.
Image depicts the back side of the paper i. As illustrated in FIGS. As depicted in FIG. This is also illustrated in FIG. In determining the design and feature sizes of the wax material to be initially disposed onto a substrate, the spreading of molten wax can be accounted for. The spreading of molten wax in paper is a process of capillary flow in porous materials that is described by Washburn's equation Washburn, Phys.
The viscosity of the wax is a function of the temperature, and a uniform and well-controlled heat source can be used for reproducible results.
Assuming the paper is kept at a constant temperature throughout the heating step, all of the parameters in eq 1 are fixed, and the distance that the wax will spread in the paper from the edge of the printed line will be constant, regardless of the width of the printed line, so long as the amount of wax is not limiting, as is the case for thin lines.
The lateral width of the hydrophobic barrier is thus related to the width of the printed line by eq The value of L also can be determined experimentally by measuring the width of printed lines and the width of the resulting hydrophobic barriers.
The width of a hydrophilic channel defined by two parallel hydrophobic barriers can be calculated using eq After the wax material is contacted or disposed onto the hydrophilic substrate, the hydrophilic substrate is subsequently heated to a temperature sufficient to melt the wax material. Any suitable method for heating the hydrophilic substrate can be used. For example, patterned paper can be heated on a hot plate or in a low temperature oven.
Suitable temperatures to melt a wax material disposed onto a porous, hydrophilic substrate can be, e. The patterned hydrophilic substrates described herein can be used for diagnostics and other analytical applications, such as to detect an analyte of interest. In some embodiments, an interaction or complex of a detection reagent and an analyte of interest to be detected within a fluid sample can generate a detectable effect, for example one that is apparent to the naked eye e.
Alternatively, such an interaction can be detected using a spectrometer or other technical means e. Typically, the detection reagent has a greater affinity for the predetermined analyte than for other components of the fluid sample to be assayed.
The detection reagent can be a chemical, which undergoes a color change when contacted with a particular analyte, or an enzyme that can convert an analyte into a detectable compound or can convert a second agent into a detectable compound in the presence of an analyte.
In some embodiments, the detection reagent is an immunoglobulin, e. In some embodiments, a detection antibody, e. When the detection reagent, e. The devices described herein can be used for assaying small volumes of biological samples, e. Biological samples that can be assayed using the devices described herein include, e.
In some embodiments, the volume of fluid sample to be assayed can be a drop of blood, e. The process is rapid less than about 5 min from design to finished device and can produce many copies e. This system also provides a test-bed for very large-scale printing process using hydrophobic waxes using, for example, rotogravure printing. Further, devices made of non-specialty paper can be significantly cheaper. The dimensions for printing a wax material onto a hydrophilic substrate can be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art, and can depend on the hydrophilic substrate, the wax material, and the pattern.
The invention is further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims. Whatman no. Starting from sheets of Whatman No.
This paper size fit directly into the manual feed tray from the printer. Regular print paper and TechniCloth were also used in some instances. A Xerox Phaser N color printer was used, which prints using a wax-based ink. A digital hot plate was used to heat the patterned paper. This type of hot plate provides a flat, uniformly heated surface for heating the paper. Other heat sources, such as ovens or heat guns, can also be used for wax patterning. However, any drawing software can be used.
The default printer settings for photo-quality printing were used. The central area of the design was magnified to show the smaller features. The front and back faces of the paper were imaged using a desktop scanner. The dashed white lines indicate the original edge of the ink. The white bars in the insets highlight the width of the pattern at the position indicated by the arrows.
The paper was flipped over a couple of times after one minute over the hot plate. Most devices were used for investigatory function and were ready for use after the melting step without addition of any chemicals. Multi-zone paper plates such as shown in FIG. The paper was then heated to melt the wax into the paper, and then the cross sections of the resulting hydrophobic barriers were analyzed.
For each line, the nominal width the width of the line as designed on the computer , the printed width the width of the line as printed on paper , and the barrier width the average of the width of the hydrophobic barrier on the front face of the paper and back face of the paper were determined.
The black rectangles represent the wax lines before the heating step, and the gray area represents the wax after the heating step. The top panel of FIG. This difference indicated a bias in the orientation of printing. Analysis of the cross-section of these lines provided the insight for the proposed model for the spreading of molten wax in paper.
To define the resolution of the wax printing method, the barrier width of the narrowest functional hydrophobic barrier and the channel width of the narrowest functional hydrophilic channel were determined experimentally.
A functional hydrophobic barrier was defined as one that prevented water from wicking across it for at least 30 min. A functional hydrophilic channel was defined as one that was at least 5 mm long and wicked aqueous solutions from a fluid reservoir to a test zone.
Many design of the devices in different shapes, orientations, line thickness, and line spacing were tested to allow easy and simple visualization if the features, i. Analysis of the effectiveness of the hydrophobic barriers and hydrophilic channels were visual, using a solution of 5 mM of Amaranth [CAS number ].
The presence of leaks indicated that the barrier was not effective at a given line thickness; blockage of the solution was an indication that the spacing between two lines were too close to leave a channel for wicking of the solution. All line thickness and distances were measured using an optical microscope Leica MZ12 and a 1-mm scale, or using the ruler tool from Adobe Acrobat on images acquired with a desktop scanner Epson Perfection with resolution of dpi or greater.
Horizontal straight lines i. As depicted in FIGS. Each test zone was separated from fluid reservoir by a hydrophobic barrier indicated as the test line TL. The features inside test zones were the nominal widths of the barriers in micrometers , which were blurred during the heating step. In FIG. Channels separated central fluid reservoir from test zones The values shown in gray are the nominal gap widths.
The resolution of wax printing was coarse, i. The resolution was limited by the quality of the paper thickness, porosity, and orientation of fibers.
The mass transport of the wax in the perpendicular direction through the plane of the paper was improved by applying an external force, such as vacuum driven flow of air, on the direction of the flow results not shown. Additionally, printing a pattern on both sides of the paper leads to smaller and more highly resolved barriers, with careful alignment of the patterns.
Strong acid and base solutions dissolve the paper if the device is left in the solution for long periods of time days. Wax-printed channels were not compatible with organic solvents. Xylenes, acetone, methylene chloride, mineral oil, and alcohols methanol, ethanol, and n-propanol all wicked through the hydrophobic barriers. Dichloromethane and acetone washed away most of the dye in the wax and carried it along with the front of the solvent, but after the solvent evaporated, the hydrophobic barriers were still present.
Based on this permeability to organic solvents, in one embodiment, biological samples are applied onto a zone paper plate and, after the samples are dry, the samples are washed with an organic solvent to remove endogenous and exogenous interferences for a given bioassay. Protein Assay. A priming solution 0. A reagent solution 0. Cholesterol Assay. A reagent solution [cholesterol oxidase-horseradish peroxidase units of cholesterol oxidase enzyme activity and 30 units of horseradish peroxidase enzyme activity per mL of solution , 0.
Glucose Assay. A reagent solution [glucose oxidase-horseradish peroxidase units of glucose oxidase enzyme activity and 30 units of horseradish peroxidase enzyme activity per mL of solution , 0.
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